Executive Summary: Climate change, driven by human activities like deforestation and fossil fuel emissions, is disrupting global agriculture and threatening food security. Rising temperatures, erratic precipitation, and extreme weather events are reducing crop yields, water availability, and livestock productivity. In India, a key agricultural nation and the world’s top milk producer, these changes are particularly impactful. The dairy sector faces challenges such as heat stress, declining forage quality, and rising feed costs, which jeopardize milk production, farmer incomes, and nutritional security. Punjab, a major dairy-producing state, struggles with a 20–25% fodder deficit, exacerbated by climate variability and cereal-focused cropping. This article explores the direct effects of climate change on dairy animals, feed availability, and smallholder farmers, emphasizing strategies like climate-smart practices, resilient breeds, and policy support to mitigate impacts and ensure food security.
Climate Change: A Growing Threat to Global Agriculture and Food Security
Climate change refers to long-term changes in global weather patterns, primarily characterized by rising temperatures, altered precipitation, and an increase in extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and heat waves. These changes are largely driven by human activities such as deforestation, industrial emissions, and the burning of fossil fuels, which contribute to the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. As a result, global temperatures have risen, disrupting ecosystems and climatic stability.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Earth’s average temperature has increased by about 1°C above pre-industrial levels and is expected to rise by an additional 1.5°C to 2°C by mid-century if current emission levels persist. These temperature changes have serious implications for agriculture, affecting crop yields, water availability, and livestock health. In countries like India, where agriculture is heavily dependent on climate factors such as monsoons and temperature patterns, climate variability poses a direct threat to food production, farmer livelihoods, and national food security. The consequences include increased food prices, malnutrition, and potential social unrest.
India, being the world’s top milk producer, is especially vulner able to such climatic changes. The dairy sector not only contributes significantly to the national economy but also serves as a vital nutritional source especially for the country’s large vegetarian population, for whom milk is the primary source of animal protein. Climate change is likely to disrupt milk production potential, which could have far-reaching effects on nutrition and health of both dairy animals and humans as well as overall income security.
Understanding Food Security
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as a situation where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security is built upon four key pillars:
- Availability – Sufficient food supply at local, national, and global levels.
- Access – Economic and physical means to obtain food.
- Utilization – Proper use of food, including its nutritional quality and how the body absorbs nutrients.
- Stability – Consistent availability and access to food over time, without disruptions.
Climate change threatens all these pillar—disrupting production through extreme weather, reducing access by harming agricultural incomes, compromising nutrition through lower-quality crops, and undermining system stability.
- Direct Effects of Climate Change on Dairy Animals
Heat Stress and Reduced Milk Production
- One of the most immediate effects of climate change on dairy animals is heat stress, particularly when temperatures exceed 25–30°C. Cows and buffaloes struggle to regulate their body temperature under such conditions, resulting in reduced feed intake, lower milk yield, and impaired reproduction. In regions like northern and central India, where summer temperatures can exceed 40°C, the effects are more severe.
- Studies (Mader et al., 2006) indicate that milk production may decline by 10–30% due to heat stress. Cows also show behavioural changes, such as increased resting time and reduced grazing, which leads to lower food intake (Singh et al., 2019). Elevated cortisol levels from stress negatively affect reproduction, causing delayed estrus and higher stillbirth rates
- Animal Health and Disease Risks
- Heat stress compromises the immune system, making animals more susceptible to diseases such as mastitis, respiratory infections, and foot rot. Ghosh and Samui (2020) found that stressed animals are at increased risk of infections, escalating veterinary treatment costs. Additionally, rising temperatures and altered rainfall also promote vector-borne diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease and bluetongue. ICAR reports highlight the growing risk by increased mosquito and tick activity in hotter regions.
- Impact on Forage and Feed Availability
- India’s dairy sector relies heavily on natural forages such as grasses, legumes, and crop residues. Climate change—through erratic rainfall patterns, rising temperatures, and frequent droughts—threatens the supply and quality of these feed sources.
- Decline in Forage Quality and Quantity
- In drought-prone states like Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, changing monsoon patterns have led to declining fodder availability. Chakravarty et al. (2020) observed that repeated droughts are shrinking grazing lands, forcing farmers to rely on expensive feed alternatives.
- Moreover, elevated temperatures reduce forage quality by degrading nutrient content and increasing indigestible fiber, thereby compromising dairy animal health, productivity, and milk yield.
- Rising Dependence on Commercial Feeds
- With natural forage becoming scarce, many farmers are switching to commercial feeds, which are often costly and not easily accessible to smallholder farmers. Climate change also impacts global grain production, leading to price volatility and supply issues. Kumar et al. (2018) noted that fluctuating grain prices linked to weather events in exporting countries have increased feed costs and further strained dairy farm profitability.
- Economic Pressures on Smallholder Farmers
- India’s dairy industry is largely made up of smallholder farmers with limited livestock and minimal resources. These farmers are especially vulnerable to climate change
Rising Costs and Reduced Incomes
- Increased expenses for feed, water, and veterinary care are cutting into already-thin profit margins. Singh et al. (2019) estimated that climate-related losses in productivity and rising costs could reduce small farm incomes by 15–25%.
- Additionally, irrigation-dependent fodder crops are being affected by water scarcity, escalating local tensions over water usage and threatening long-term sustainability.
Threats to Food Security
- Milk remains a vital source of nutrition for many Indians, especially in rural areas. Disruptions in milk production can lead to supply shortages and price hikes, making dairy products unaffordable for low-income households. This poses a serious food security risk, particularly for children and other vulnerable groups. While the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) notes a steady rise in per capita milk consumption, future climate-related disruptions could reverse this trend.
- Strategies for Adaptation and Mitigation
- Addressing climate change impacts on dairy farming requires a multi-pronged strategy involving improved farming practices, animal management, and policy support.
Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices
- Diversified Feed Sources: Growing drought-resistant fodder crops such as Napier grass and sorghum can reduce reliance on rain-sensitive forages.
- Water Management: Implementing rainwater harvesting and water-saving irrigation systems can help secure water for both crops and livestock.
Improved Animal Management
- Heat Stress Mitigation: Providing shade, ventilation, and cooling systems like fans or mist sprayers can reduce thermal stress in animals.
- Climate-Resilient Breeds: Indigenous cattle breeds such as Gir, Sahiwal, and Kankrej are naturally more heat-tolerant and disease-resistant. Chauhan et al. (2020) advocate for focused breeding programs to enhance resilience.
Policy and Institutional Support
- Subsidies and Incentives: Government support for climate-resilient technologies and inputs can ease the financial burden on small holders.
- Education and Extension Services: Farmers need access to training, early warning systems, and information on climate-smart practices and sustainable resource management to make informed decisions.
Agro-Climatic Zones of Punjab and the Fodder Scenario
Though geographically small, Punjab exhibits diverse agro-climatic conditions that significantly impact cropping patterns, soil types, and the availability of fodder. The state is divided into three primary agro-climatic zones, each with distinct characteristics and fodder-related challenges:
- Sub-Mountain Undulating Zone
- Districts Covered: Parts of Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, and Rupnagar
- Topography: Rolling terrain at the base of the Shivalik hills
- Soil Type: Light-textured, erosion-prone
- Rainfall: 1000–1200 mm (highest in Punjab)
Fodder Scenario: While natural grasses are present, cultivated fodder is limited due to the uneven landscape. Introducing silvipasture systems (integration of trees and grasses) and promoting drought-resistant fodder crops can improve productivity in this zone.
- Central Plain Zone
- Districts Covered: Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Patiala, Sangrur, Barnala, and parts of Amritsar and Fatehgarh Sahib
- Topography: Flat, fertile plains are ideal for intensive agriculture
- Soil Type: Rich alluvial soils
- Rainfall: 700–1000 mm
Fodder Scenario: This zone is the most suitable for fodder cultivation. Major fodder crops include berseem, maize, bajra, jowar, and oats. Due to abundant irrigation and fertile soils, dairy farming is highly concentrated here.
- South-Western Dry Zone
- Districts Covered: Bathinda, Mansa, Fazilka, Muktsar, and parts of Ferozepur and Faridkot
- Topography: Arid to semi-arid with salinity and water logging issues
- Soil Type: Sandy loam to loamy; often saline
- Rainfall: 300–500 mm (lowest in Punjab)
Fodder Scenario: Fodder scarcity is a serious concern. Traditional grasses like sewan and dhaman are used, but productivity is limited. To combat scarcity, promoting drought-tolerant species such as guar, sorghum, and fodder bajra is essential. Ensuring a year-round supply of fodder remains a major challenge (Chaudary and Singh 2019).
Overall Fodder Scenario in Punjab
As one of India’s top dairy-producing states, Punjab places strong emphasis on livestock feed availability. Despite this focus, the state faces a fodder deficit of approximately 20–25%, especially during lean seasons (May–June and December–January).
Major Fodder Crops:
- Winter (Rabi): Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) and oats (Avena sativa)
- Summer (Kharif): Maize, bajra, and jowar
Several challenges limit consistent fodder availability:
- Excessive focus on cereal crops like wheat and paddy, reducing land for fodder cultivation
- Declining water table and deteriorating soil health
- Limited adoption of fodder conservation practices such as silage and haymaking, especially among small holders
- Inadequate infrastructure for fodder storage, leading to seasonal shortages and income loss
Addressing these issues requires a strategic approach:
- Promote crop rotation that includes fodder crops alongside cereals
- Educate farmers on modern conservation techniques
- Develop and distribute high-yielding, drought-resistant fodder varieties
- Enhance infrastructure for fodder storage and preservation (e.g., silos, hay barns)
Fodder Availability and Deficit in Punjab
Punjab’s livestock population is approximately 5.85 million Adult Cattle Units (ACUs), which collectively require
about 14.94 million tonnes of feed and fodder annually. The estimated annual availability stands at 24.24 million tonnes, suggesting an overall surplus of 62.18%. However, this apparent surplus overlooks critical regional shortages in fodder availability.
District-Level Variations: Regions such as Amritsar and SAS Nagar experience notable fodder shortages despite the state-wide surplus, underscoring the importance of localized planning and resource allocation.
Green Fodder Deficiency: Punjab faces a green fodder deficit of 28.57%, equivalent to 22.99 million tonnes (Tanwar and Verma, 2017).
Recommendations to Improve Fodder Security
- Crop Diversification: Integrate fodder crops into existing cereal-dominated cropping systems to ensure balanced land use.
- Farmer Training: Educate farmers on silage and haymaking to store surplus fodder for periods of scarcity.
- Drought-Resistant Varieties: Develop and promote climate-resilient, high-yield fodder crops tailored for arid and semi-arid zones.
- Efficient Irrigation: Encourage water-saving technologies such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems to enhance fodder productivity in water-stressed regions.
- Fodder Banks: Establish community-level fodder banks to store and distribute feed during critical shortages and natural calamities.
Conclusion
Climate change poses a significant threat to India’s dairy industry—impacting livestock health, reducing feed availability, and undermining farm profitability. In Punjab, where dairy farming plays a vital role in rural livelihoods and the state economy, the dual challenges of climate variability and fodder scarcity demand immediate and sustained attention.
Adopting climate-smart practices, promoting resilient livestock breeds, and providing institutional support are essential to safeguarding the livelihoods of millions of smallholder dairy farmers. Building fodder security through better crop management, conservation, and infrastructure will be key to ensuring a stable supply of milk and nutrition for India’s growing population.
by Dr Harsimran Kaur1, Dr Simranjeet Kaur2, Dr Harinder Singh3, Dr Ramandeep Singh4
1& 2 Ph.D., Punjab Agricultural University; 3 Excellent Enterprises, Khanna;
4 Professor, Punjab Agricultural University
References are available upon request
